Organismal Superposition Problem and Nihilist Challenge in the Definition of Death.

According to the mainstream bioethical stance, death constitutes the termination of an organism. This essay argues that such an understanding of death is inappropriate in the usual context of determining death, since it also has a social bearing. There are two reasons to justify this argument. First, the mainstream bioethical definition generates an organismal superposition challenge, according to which a given patient in a single physiological state might be both alive and dead, like Schrödinger's cat. Therefore, there is no clear answer as to whether organ retrieval from a brain-dead patient is an act of killing or not. Second, when combined with the dead donor rule, the mainstream position in the definition of death might lead to ethically unacceptable verdicts, since there is a discrepancy between terminating an organism and depriving someone of moral status.

The Morality of Kidney Sales: When Caring for the Seller's Dignity Has Moral Costs.

Kidney markets are prohibited in principle because they are assumed to undermine the seller's dignity. Considering the trade-off between saving more lives by introducing regulated kidney markets and preserving the seller's dignity, we argue that it is advisable to demand that citizens restrain their own moral judgements and not interfere with the judgements of those who are willing to sell a kidney. We also argue that it is advisable not only to limit the political implications of the moral argument of dignity concerns toward a market-based solution but also to re-evaluate the dignity argument itself. First, if the dignity argument is to be given normative force, it must also consider the dignity violation of the potential transplant recipient. Second, there seems to be no compelling notion of dignity that demonstrates why it is morally permissible to donate but not to sell a kidney.

Time to Abolish Metrics That Sustain Systemic Racism in Kidney Allocation.

This Viewpoint discusses how the Kidney Donor Profile Index (KDPI) in its current form is not fit to guide kidney allocation because it devalues organ donation by Black donors based on a weak association between donor race and kidney transplant failure.

Living Donor Ethics and Uterus Transplantation.

This article provides an in-depth ethical analysis of living donor uterus transplantation, incorporating clinical, psychological, and qualitative study data into the discussion. Although the concept of living organ donors as patients in their own right has not always been present in the field of transplantation, this conceptualization informs the framework for living donor ethics that we apply to living uterus donation. This framework takes root in the principles of research ethics, which include respect for persons, beneficence, and justice. It incorporates an analysis based on eight potential vulnerabilities of living donors: capacitational, juridic, deferential, social, medical, situational, allocational, and infrastructural. Finally, it recognizes that special relationships-such as that of the living donor advocate with the potential donor-require special responsibilities, including identifying vulnerabilities and engaging donors in a shared decision-making process. Directed and non-directed uterus donors require separate ethical analyses because their different relationships with recipients will influence the types of vulnerabilities, they are subject to as well as the potential benefits they may gain from donation.

Ethical Solutions to the Problem of Organ Shortage.

Organ shortage is a major survival issue for millions of people worldwide. Globally 1.2 million people die each year from kidney failure. In this paper, we critically examine and find lacking extant proposals for increasing organ supply, such as opting in and opt out for deceased donor organs, and parochial altruism and paired kidney exchange for live organs. We defend two ethical solutions to the problem of organ shortage. One is to make deceased donor organs automatically available for transplant without requiring consent from the donor or their relatives. The other is for society to buy nonvital organs in a strictly regulated market and provide them to people in need for free.

Risk Assessment and Management for Potential Living Kidney Donors: The Role of "Third-Party" Commission.

Living kidney donation is the most common type of living-donor transplant. Italian guidelines allow the living donations from emotionally related donors only after clear and voluntary consent expressed by both the donor and the recipient involved. Living donation raises ethical and legal issues because donors voluntarily undergo a surgical procedure to remove a healthy kidney in order to help another person. According to the Italian standards, the assessment of living donor-recipient pair has to be conducted by a medical "third party", completely independent from both the patients involved and the medical team treating the recipient. Starting from the Hospital "Città della Salute e della Scienza" of Turin (Italy) experience, including 116 living kidney donations, the Authors divided the evaluation process performed by the "Third-Party" Commission into four stages, with a particular attention to the potential donor. Living donation procedures should reflect fiduciary duties that healthcare providers have toward their patients, originating from the relationship of trust between physician and patient. In addition to that, the social implications are enormous if one considers the worldwide campaigns to promote public awareness about organ donation and transplantation, and to encourage people to register their organ donation decisions. The systematic process proposed here can be a tool that proactively reduces and controls the risks of coercion, organ trafficking, vitiated consent, insufficient weighting of donative choice, that could arise especially in donors involved in living kidney donation.

Ethical dilemmas and principles in organ transplantation in China / Dilemas y principios éticos en el trasplante de órganos en China / Dilemas e princípios éticos no transplante de órgãos na China

Abstract In medical clinical practice, organ transplantation is mainly applied to patients with end-stage organ lesions and organ failure. However, with the development of organ transplantation, many ethical issues and controversies have arisen. From the perspective of bioethics, the article compares the relevant ethical and legal regulations of organ transplantation in various countries. Due to the complexity of the real situation, many ethical dilemmas arise in organ transplantation in China. The article analyzes and researches three aspects of organ donation, distribution, and trading, and finds that there are various ethical problems in these three aspects of organ transplantation in China, such as whether the principle of presumed consent is ethical, whether brain death is legalized, the selection and determination of transplant patients, and whether human organ trading is legalized, etc. With the help of the four principles of bioethics and the current development of organ transplantation in China, the article proposes that organ transplantation in China should follow four ethical principles: the principle of respect for life, the principle of do no harm/benefit, the principle of respect for autonomy, and the principle of justice, in order to provide a defense for the legitimacy of organ transplantation.

Resumen En la práctica clínica médica, el trasplante de órganos se aplica principalmente a los pacientes con lesiones orgánicas en fase terminal y con insuficiencia orgánica. Sin embargo, con el desarrollo del trasplante de órganos, han surgido muchas cuestiones éticas y controversias. Desde la perspectiva de la bioética, el artículo compara las normas éticas y jurídicas pertinentes del trasplante de órganos en varios países. Debido a la complejidad de la situación real, surgen muchos dilemas éticos en el trasplante de órganos en China. El artículo analiza e investiga tres aspectos de la donación, la distribución y el comercio de órganos, y constata que hay varios problemas éticos en estos tres aspectos del trasplante de órganos en China, como si el principio del consentimiento presunto es ético, si la muerte cerebral está legalizada, la selección y determinación de los pacientes de trasplante y si el comercio de órganos humanos está legalizado, etc. Con la ayuda de los cuatro principios de la bioética y el desarrollo actual del trasplante de órganos en China, el artículo propone que el trasplante de órganos en China debe seguir cuatro principios éticos: el principio de respeto a la vida, el principio de no hacer daño/beneficio, el principio de respeto a la autonomía y el principio de justicia, con el fin de proporcionar una defensa de la legitimidad del trasplante de órganos.

Resumo Na prática clínica médica, o transplante de órgãos é principalmente destinado a pacientes em estágio final de lesões e falência dos órgãos. Entretanto, com o desenvolvimento do transplante de órgãos, surgiram muitas questões e controvérsias éticas. O artigo compara, desde uma perspectiva bioética, as regulações éticas e legais relevantes sobre transplantes de órgãos em vários países. Devido à complexidade da situação real, muitos dilemas éticos surgiram no transplante de órgãos na China. O artigo analisa e investiga aspectos de doação, distribuição e comercialização de órgãos, e encontra que há vários problemas éticos nestes três aspectos do transplante de órgãos na China, tais como se o princípio do consentimento presumido é ético, se morte cerebral é legalizada, a seleção e determinação de pacientes que irão receber transplante, se a comercialização de órgãos humanos é legalizada, etc. O artigo propõe, com a ajuda de quatro princípios da bioética e o desenvolvimento atual de transplante de órgãos na China, que o transplante de órgãos na China deve seguir quatro princípios éticos: o princípio do respeito à vida, o princípio de beneficiar/não causar dano, o princípio do respeito pela autonomia e o princípio da justiça, de forma a possibilitar a defesa da legitimidade do transplante de órgãos.

Willingness of corneal donation and its associated factors among adult patients attending Gondar University Comprehensive and Specialized Hospital.

INTRODUCTION: Corneal transplantation is the only treatment option for corneal blindness to restore sight. However, there is a disproportionate imbalance between the demand and supply of corneal tissue in Ethiopia. This is because accessing corneal tissue is reliant on people who are willing to donate corneas after death. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to assess the proportion of willingness to donate cornea and associated factors among adult patients attending at University of Gondar comprehensive and specialized hospital. METHOD: Institutional based cross-sectional study was conducted from July 13 to July 28, 2020, through a face-to-face interview. A total of 451 samples were selected using systematic random sampling. The data were entered into Epidemiological information version 7 and exported to statistical package for social science version 20 for formal analysis. Variables with a P-value of < 0.20 in a bi-variable logistic regression were entered into the multivariable logistic regression and those variables with a p-value of < 0.05 were taken as statistically significant. The strength of association was shown using the odds ratio with a 95% confidence interval. RESULT: A total of 408 adults participated in this study with a response rate of 90% and the proportion of willingness to donate cornea was 179(43.90%). Participants who had a religious belief in Christianity (AOR = 3.23 (95% CI: 1.09-9.57)) and good knowledge about corneal donation (AOR = 5.45(95%CI: 2.69-11.18)) were positively associated with the willingness of corneal donation. On the other side, the age group above 43 years (AOR = 0.31(95% CI: 0.11-0.89) was negatively associated with the willingness of corneal donation. CONCLUSION: The proportion of willingness to donate cornea 43.9% among participants attending Gondar University Comprehensive and Specialized Hospital. Age group greater than 43 years, religion of Christianity and good knowledge were associated with the willingness of corneal donation.

First Organ Donation after Circulatory Death Following Withdrawal of Life-sustaining Treatment in Korea: a Case Report.

In February 2018, the Withdrawal of the Life-sustaining Treatment (WLST) Decision Act was legalized in Korea. Donation after circulatory death (DCD) after WLST was classified as DCD category III. We report the first case of successful organ donation after WLST in Korea. A 52-year-old male who experienced cerebral hemorrhage was a potential brain-dead donor with donation consent. During the first brain death examination, Babinski reflex was present, which disappeared two days later. Then, electroencephalography was performed five times at intervals of 2 to 3 days, according to the recommendation of a neurologist. The patient was transferred to the OR at 19:30 July 3, 2020. At 20:00, an intensive care unit specialist performed extubation and discontinued vasopressors. Oxygen saturation fell to < 70% in 1 minute, which signaled the beginning of functional warm ischemia. At 20:15, asystole was confirmed; after 5 minutes of "no-touch time," circulatory death was declared. Organ procurement surgery was initiated, with surgeons performing the recipient surgery ready in the adjacent OR. Through the first successful DCD case, we expected that DCD will be actively implemented in Korea, saving the lives of patient waiting for transplantation and resolving the imbalance between organ receipt and donation.

Presumed consent for organ donation: an incoherent justification / Presunción del consentimiento para la donación de órganos: una justificación incoherente / Consentimento presumido na dação de órgãos: uma justificação incoerente

Abstract: 15. The difference between supply and demand of transplantable organs is a global problem, and one of the most discussed measures aiming to solve it is the implementation of a presumed consent (opt-out) policy in cadaveric organ donation. This type of system is controversial when it comes to its direct effects on organ donation rates as well as its ethical base. We aim to present the latest perspectives concerning the ethical implications of the policy, especially regarding consent: its need, the coherence of presuming it and the policy's capacity to fulfill its requirements. From a community perspective, we advocate a default change in societies with an opt-out system, with a strong population education in that direction. The potential rights of family objection are also approached as well as the differences between theoretical discussion and concrete application of public policy.

Resumen: 19. El desfase entre la oferta y la demanda de órganos para trasplantes es un problema mundial, y una de las medidas más discutidas para solucionarlo es la aplicación de una política de consientimiento presumido (opt-out) de la donación de órganos de cadáveres. Este tipo de sistema es controvertido teniendo en cuenta sus efectos directos sobre las tasas de donación de órganos, así como su base ética. Nuestro objetivo es presentar las últimas perspectivas sobre las implicaciones éticas, especialmente en lo que respecta al consentimiento: su necesidad, la consistencia de su presunción y la capacidad de cumplir sus requisitos. Desde el punto de vista comunitario, abogamos por un cambio por defecto en las sociedades con un sistema de opt-out, con una fuerte educación de la población a tal efecto. También se abordan los posibles derechos de la objeción familiar, así como las diferencias entre el debate teórico y la aplicación concreta de las políticas públicas.

Resumo: 23. A diferença entre a oferta e a procura de órgãos para transplantação é um problema global, e uma das medidas mais discutidas com vista à sua resolução é a implementação de uma política de consentimento presumido (opt-out) na doação de órgãos de cadáver. Este tipo de sistema é controverso ponderando os seus efeitos diretos nas taxas de doação de órgãos, bem como da sua base ética. O nosso objetivo é apresentar as últimas perspetivas relativas às implicações éticas, especialmente no que diz respeito ao consentimento: a sua necessidade, a coerência da sua presunção e a capacidade em cumprir os seus requisitos. Numa perspetiva comunitária, defendemos uma mudança de default nas sociedades com um sistema opt-out, com uma forte educação da população nesse sentido. Os direitos potenciais da objeção familiar também são abordados, bem como as diferenças entre a discussão teórica e a aplicação concreta da política pública.

Deceased by default: Consent systems and organ-patient mortality.

Previous research shows that countries with opt-out consent systems for organ donation conduct significantly more deceased-donor organ transplantations than those with opt-in systems. This paper investigates whether the higher transplantation rates in opt-out systems translate into equally lower death rates among organ patients registered on a waiting list (i.e., organ-patient mortality rates). We show that the difference between consent systems regarding kidney- and liver-patient mortality rates is significantly smaller than the difference in deceased-donor transplantation rates. This is likely due to different incentives between the consent systems. We find empirical evidence that opt-out systems reduce incentives for living donations, which explains our findings for kidneys. The results imply that focusing on deceased-donor transplantation rates alone paints an incomplete picture of opt-out systems' benefits, and that there are important differences between organs in this respect.

Canadian Society of Transplantation White Paper: Ethical and Legal Considerations for Alcohol and Cannabis Use in Solid Organ Listing and Allocation.

Alcohol and cannabis use as a contraindication to organ transplantation is a controversial issue. Until recently, patients in Canada with alcohol-associated liver disease were required to demonstrate abstinence for 6 mo to receive a liver transplant. There is no equivalent rule that is applied consistently for cannabis use. There is some evidence that alcohol and cannabis use disorder pretransplant could be associated with worse outcomes posttransplantation. However, early liver transplantation for patients with alcohol-associated liver disease in France and in the United States has led to challenges of the 6-mo abstinence rule in Canada in the media. It has also resulted in several legal challenges arguing that the rule violates human rights laws regarding discrimination in the provision of medical services and that the rule is also unconstitutional (this challenge is still before the court). Recent legalization of cannabis use for adults in Canada has led to questions about the appropriateness of limiting transplant access based on cannabis use. The ethics committee of the Canadian Society of Transplantation was asked to provide an ethical analysis of cannabis and alcohol abstinence policies. Our conclusions were as follows: neither cannabis use nor the 6-mo abstinence rule for alcohol use should be an absolute contraindication to transplantation, and transplant could be offered to selected patients, further research should be conducted to ensure evidence-based policies; and the transplant community has a duty not to perpetuate stigma associated with alcohol and cannabis use disorders.

Identifying the nature and extent of public and donor concern about the commercialisation of biobanks for genomic research.

Various forms of private investment are considered necessary for the sustainability of biobanks, yet pose significant challenges to public trust. To manage this tension, it is vital to identify the concerns of relevant stakeholders to ensure effective and acceptable policy and practice. This research examines the aspects of commercialisation that are of most concern to the Australian public (n = 800) and patients who had donated their tissue to two large disease specific (cancer) public biobanks (n = 564). Overall, we found a commercialisation effect (higher support for public relative to private) in relation to funding, research location and access to stored biospecimens. The effect was strongest for research locations and access compared to funding. A latent class analysis revealed the pattern of concern differed, with the majority (34.1%) opposing all aspects of commercialisation, a minority supporting all (15.7%), one quarter (26.8%) opposing some (sharing and selling tissue) but not others (research locations and funding), and a group who were unsure about most aspects but opposed selling tissue (23.5%). Patient donors were found to be more accepting of and unsure about most aspects of commercialisation. Members of the (general) public who were motivated to participate in biobanking were more likely to oppose some aspects while supporting others, while those who indicated they would not donate to a biobank were more likely to oppose all aspects of commercialisation. The results suggest that approaches to policy, engagement and awareness raising need to be tailored for different publics and patient groups to increase participation.